Journalism: Reporting & Investigative Methods

Investigative RPT begins w/ hypothesis formation based on TIPS, public records, or pattern recognition. The core question: what is someone hiding, & why? Build a document trail before approaching SRCs — you need leverage & knowledge to ask the right questions. Never go into an INT blind.

Source development & management: cultivate SRCs across institutions — government, corporate, nonprofit, law enforcement. Primary SRCs provide firsthand knowledge; secondary SRCs provide context & corroboration. Always seek ON-REC attribution. If SRC requests BKGD or OTR, negotiate terms explicitly before information flows. Document all agreements in notes. BKGD means you can use info but not attribute; OTR means info guides your RPT but can't be published directly.

Verification methodology: minimum 2-SRC rule for any factual claim. Independent corroboration means SRCs don't share a common origin for their info. DOC verification > human memory. Cross-reference claims against public records (court filings, property records, corporate filings, tax liens, campaign finance). Use OSINT tools: satellite imagery for location verification, WHOIS for domain ownership, Wayback Machine for deleted web content, social media archival for statements.

Public records & FOI: FOIA (federal) & state open records laws are foundational tools. Draft specific, narrow requests to avoid overbroad denials. Know exemptions (national security, privacy, law enforcement, deliberative process) & challenge improper redactions. Track response deadlines — federal is 20 business days. Appeal denials administratively before litigation. State laws vary significantly — some have no fees, others charge per page. Build relationships w/ records officers; they control processing speed.

INT techniques: preparation is 80% of a good INT. Research SRC thoroughly before meeting. Prepare question outline but remain flexible. Open w/ rapport-building, move to substantive questions, save confrontational questions for end (so they can't walk out early & leave you w/ nothing). Use silence as a tool — uncomfortable pauses often yield revelations. Active listening > rapid-fire questioning. Record INTs when legally permitted (know your state's consent laws — one-party vs two-party).

The confrontation INT: when RPT reveals wrongdoing, subject gets right of response before PUB. Present specific findings (dates, amounts, names) & ask for explanation. This is not a gotcha — it's fairness & legal protection. Document the offer to respond even if subject declines. Send written summary of allegations via email to create paper trail. Give reasonable deadline for response (48-72 hours typical).

Data journalism & CAR (Computer-Assisted RPT): acquire datasets through FOI, scraping public sites, or building your own from DOCs. Clean data methodically — standardize names, addresses, dates. Look for outliers, patterns, & anomalies. Statistical analysis: understand correlation vs causation, significance testing, sampling bias. Visualize findings w/ charts/maps but don't distort (maintain honest axes, proportional scales). Cross-reference datasets to find connections invisible in individual records.

Digital forensics & OSINT: verify images w/ reverse image search, EXIF data analysis, & shadow/reflection consistency. Geolocate photos using visible landmarks, vegetation, signage, & sun position. Verify video authenticity — check for compression artifacts, metadata, & frame-level analysis. Social media investigation: archive everything (screenshots + URL + timestamp), map networks & connections, identify sock puppet accounts through behavioral patterns.

Legal & ethical framework: defamation requires false statement of fact (not opinion), PUB to third party, fault (actual malice for public figures per Sullivan standard, negligence for private individuals), & damages. Truth is absolute defense. Fair RPT privilege protects accurate coverage of official proceedings. Shield laws protect SRC confidentiality in many states but vary in strength. Know your state's anti-SLAPP statute for frivolous lawsuits.

Ethical standards: SPJ Code of Ethics pillars — seek truth & report it, minimize harm, act independently, be accountable. Never fabricate quotes, composite characters, or scenes. Disclose conflicts of interest. Avoid checkbook journalism (paying SRCs). Protect vulnerable SRCs — consider whether naming them serves public interest proportionate to potential harm. Corrections policy: fix errors promptly, transparently, & prominently.

Narrative structure for investigative pieces: the nut graf tells readers why this matters NOW. Lead w/ a compelling anecdote or scene that humanizes the systemic issue. Layer evidence progressively — each section should raise new questions that the next section answers. Include the human impact alongside institutional failures. End w/ accountability & what happens next. Show your work — explain methodology so readers can evaluate your findings.

Collaborative & cross-border investigation: partnerships (ICIJ model) multiply resources & protect against single-point legal pressure. Establish shared protocols for data security, PUB timing, & editorial standards. Use encrypted COMM (Signal, SecureDrop) for SRC communication. Air-gapped computers for sensitive DOCs. Never store SRC-identifying info on internet-connected devices. Threat modeling: identify who might want to suppress your RPT & what capabilities they have.

Beat RPT fundamentals: become the expert on your beat. Read every relevant DOC — budgets, meeting minutes, contracts, audits, inspection reports. Build a SRC list across all stakeholder groups (officials, employees, advocates, affected community members). Develop a tip pipeline through consistent coverage & demonstrated trustworthiness. Track promises made by officials & follow up systematically.

Audience engagement & accountability: published investigation is beginning, not end. Track official responses & policy changes resulting from RPT. Develop follow-up stories. Engage community in providing additional TIPS & DOCs. Measure impact: legislative changes, criminal investigations opened, institutional reforms, public awareness shifts. Archive all materials for potential legal proceedings or future RPT.

Financial investigation: follow the money through corporate registries, SEC filings, property records, campaign contributions, & tax documents. Understand corporate structures — LLCs, shell companies, beneficial ownership. Trace funds through bank records (subpoena required), wire transfers, & real estate transactions. Forensic accounting red flags: round-number transactions, unusual timing, related-party dealings, revenue recognition manipulation.